Architectural Graphics

Architectural Graphics
Sixth Edition

Francis D.K. Ching
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

Cover design: C. Wallace
Cover image: Courtesy of Francis D.K. Ching
This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞
Copyright © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except
as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either
the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate
per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978)
750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at  . Requests to the Publisher
for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111
River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at  .
com/go/permissions.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts
in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with the respect to the accuracy
or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be
suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the
publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom.
For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care
Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317)
572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.
Wiley publishes in a variety of print and e; lectronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material
included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-ondemand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you
purchased, you may download this material at  . For more information
about Wiley products, visit  .
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Ching, Frank, 1943Architectural graphics / Francis D.K. Ching. -- 6th ed.
ISBN 978-1-119-03566-4 (paperback); ISBN 978-1-119-07338-3 (ebk);
ISBN 978-1-119-07350-5 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-119-09099-1 (ebk)

Printed in the United States of America.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents

		Preface  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . v
1 Drawing Tools and Materials .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 1
2

Architectural Drafting .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 17

3

Architectural Drawing Systems .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 29

4

Multiview Drawings .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 49

5

Paraline Drawings .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 91

6

Perspective Drawings  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 107

7

Rendering Tonal Values .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 147

8

Rendering Context  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 185

9

Architectural Presentations  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 201

10

Freehand Drawing  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 217

		Index .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 259

About the Companion Website
This book has a companion website, which can be
found at:
 
Enter the password: 111903566
The companion website contains over 100
interactive animations that support additional
learning by expanding on key concepts covered
throughout Architectural Graphics, Sixth Edition.
If your access code is not working, please contact
Wiley Customer Service at  
for assistance.

Preface
Forty years ago, the first edition of this text introduced students to the range
of graphic tools, techniques, and conventions designers use to communicate
architectural ideas. The prime objective behind its original formation and subsequent
revisions was to provide a clear, concise, and illustrative guide to the creation and use
of architectural graphics. While retaining the clarity and visual approach of the earlier
editions, this sixth edition of Architectural Graphics is unique in its use of digital media
to convey and clarify the essential principles of graphic communication.
Advances in computer technology have significantly altered the process of
architectural drawing and design. Current graphics applications range from 2D
drawing programs to 3D modelers and Building Information Modeling (BIM) software
that aid in the design and representation of buildings, from small houses to large and
complex structures. It is therefore important to acknowledge the unique opportunities
and challenges digital tools offer in the production of architectural graphics. Whether
a drawing is executed by hand or developed with the aid of a computer, however, the
standards and judgments governing the effective communication of design ideas in
architecture remain the same.
The overall chapter organization remains the same as in the fifth edition. Chapters
1 and 2 introduce the essential tools and techniques of drawing and drafting. While
digital tools can augment traditional techniques, the tactile, kinesthetic process
of crafting lines on a sheet of paper with a pen or pencil remains the most sensible
medium for learning the graphic language of drawing.
Chapter 3 introduces the three principal systems of pictorial representation—
multiview, paraline, and perspective drawings—and analyzes in a comparative manner
the unique viewpoints afforded by each system. Chapters 4 through 6 then focus on
the principles and standards governing the conventions and uses of each of the three
drawing systems, concepts that apply whether an architectural graphic is created
manually or digitally.
The language of architectural graphics relies on the power of a composition of lines
to convey the illusion of a three-dimensional construction or spatial environment on
a two-dimensional surface, be it a sheet of paper or a computer screen. While digital
technology may have altered the way we input information and create perspective,
paraline, and orthographic projections, a fundamental understanding of what each of
the three drawing systems conveys is required of all designers. Each drawing system
provides a limited view of what we are designing and representing. And an appreciation
for what these viewpoints reveal—and conceal—remains indispensable in the design
process.

P reface / v

Pr e face

Although the line is the quintessential element of all drawing, Chapter 7 demonstrates
techniques for creating tonal values and develops strategies for enhancing the
pictorial depth of architectural drawings and conveying the illumination of spatial
environments. Special thanks go to Nan-Ching Tai, who offered his invaluable expertise
and assistance in preparing the examples of digital lighting.
Because we design and evaluate architecture in relation to its environment, Chapter
8 extends the role of rendering to establishing context in the drawing of design
proposals and indicating the scale and intended use of spaces.
Chapter 9 examines the fundamental principles of graphic communication and
illustrates the strategic choices available in the planning and layout of architectural
presentations. Incorporated into this discussion is the original chapter on lettering
and graphic symbols, which are informative and essential elements to be considered in
preparing any presentation.
Drawing with a free hand holding a pen or pencil remains the most direct and intuitive
means we have for recording our observations and experiences, thinking through
ideas, and diagramming design concepts. Chapter 10 therefore includes additional
instruction on freehand sketching and diagramming. This terminal position reflects
the importance of freehand drawing as a graphic skill and a critical tool for design
thinking.
Other than the early phases of the design process, during which we initiate ideas,
there is no other area of design drawing that is better suited for freehand drawing
than drawing on location—from direct observation. For this reason, the section on
drawing from observation has been expanded to demonstrate how the act of seeing,
responding to, and sketching spatial environments invigorates seeing, enables
understanding, and creates memories.
Despite substantial changes in technology over the past forty years, the fundamental
premise of this text endures—drawing has the power to overcome the flatness of a
two-dimensional surface and represent three-dimensional ideas in architecture in a
clear, legible, and convincing manner. To unlock this power requires the ability both to
execute and to read the graphic language of drawing. Drawing is not simply a matter
of technique; it is also a cognitive act that involves visual perception, judgment, and
reasoning of spatial dimensions and relationships.

vi / Pr efa c e

1
Drawing Tools and
Materials
This chapter introduces the pencils and pens necessary for inscribing
lines, the instruments available for guiding the eye and hand while
drawing, and the surfaces suitable for receiving the drawn lines. While
digital technology continues to further augment and enhance this
traditional drawing toolkit, the kinesthetic act of drawing with a handheld pencil or pen remains the most direct and versatile means of
learning the language of architectural graphics.

D r aw in g Pe ncil s

Pencils are relatively inexpensive, quite versatile, and uniquely responsive to
pressure while drawing.

Lead Holders

• Lead holders employ standard 2 mm leads.
• The push-button action of a clutch mechanism allows the exposed length
of the lead shaft to be adjusted or withdrawn when the pencil is not in use.
• The lead point, which is capable of a variety of line weights, must be kept
well sharpened with a lead pointer.

Mechanical Pencils

• Mechanical pencils use 0.3 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.7 mm, and 0.9 mm leads.
• A push-button mechanism advances the lead automatically through a
metal sleeve. This sleeve should be long enough to clear the edges of
drafting triangles and straightedges.
• The relatively thin leads of mechanical pencils do not require sharpening.
• 0.3 mm pencils yield very fine lines, but the thin leads are susceptible to
breaking if applied with too much pressure.
• 0.5 mm pencils are the most practical for general drawing purposes.
• 0.7 mm and 0.9 mm pencils are useful for sketching and writing; avoid
using these pencils to produce heavy line weights.

Wood-Encased Pencils

• Wooden drawing pencils are typically used for freehand drawing and sketching.
If used for drafting, the wood must be shaved back to expose 3/4" of the lead
shaft so that it can be sharpened with sandpaper or a lead pointer.
All three styles of pencils are capable of producing quality line drawings. As you
try each type out, you will gradually develop a preference for the characteristic
feel, weight, and balance of a particular instrument as you draw.

2 / A r c hit ec t ur al Gr aph i c s

Draw i n g Le ad s

Recommendations for Grades of Graphite Lead
4H

Graphite Leads

Grades of graphite lead for drawing on paper
surfaces range from 9H (extremely hard) to
6B (extremely soft). Given equal hand
pressure, harder leads produce lighter and
thinner lines, whereas softer leads produce
denser, wider lines.
Nonphoto Blue Leads

Nonphoto blue leads are used for construction
lines because their shade of blue tends not to
be detected by photocopiers. However, digital
scanners can detect the light blue lines, which
can be removed by image editing software.

• This dense grade of lead is best suited for accurately
marking and laying out light construction lines.
• The thin, light lines are difficult to read and reproduce
and should therefore not be used for finish drawings.
• When applied with too much pressure, the dense lead
can engrave paper and board surfaces, leaving grooves
that are difficult to remove.
2H

• This medium-hard lead is also used for laying out
drawings and is the densest grade of lead suitable for
finish drawings.
• 2H lines do not erase easily if drawn with a heavy hand.
F and H

• These are general-purpose grades of lead suitable for
layouts, finish drawings, and handlettering.

Plastic Leads

Specially formulated plastic polymer leads are
available for drawing on drafting film. Grades
of plastic lead range from E0, N0, or P0 (soft)
to E5, N5, or P5 (hard). The letters E, N, and P
are manufacturers’ designations; the numbers
0 through 5 refer to degrees of hardness.

HB

• This relatively soft grade of lead is capable of dense
linework and handlettering.
• HB lines erase and print well but tend to smear easily.
• Experience and good technique are required to control
the quality of HB linework.
B

• This soft grade of lead is used for very dense linework
and handlettering.

The texture and density of a drawing surface affect
how hard or soft a pencil lead feels. The more tooth or
roughness a surface has, the harder the lead you should
use; the more dense a surface is, the softer a lead feels.

Draw i ng Tool s and M ateri als / 3

D r aw in g Pe ns

Technical Pens

Technical pens are capable of producing precise, consistent ink
lines without the application of pressure. As with lead holders and
mechanical pencils, technical pens from different manufacturers
vary in form and operation. The traditional technical pen uses an
ink-flow-regulating wire within a tubular point, the size of which
determines the width of the ink line.

There are nine point sizes available, from extremely fine
(0.13 mm) to very wide (2 mm). A starting pen set should include
the four standard line widths— 0.25 mm, 0.35 mm, 0.5 mm,
and 0.70 mm­—specified by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
• 0.25 mm line width
• 0.35 mm line width
• 0.50 mm line width
• 0.70 mm line width
• The tubular point should be long enough to clear the thickness of
drafting triangles and straightedges.
• Use waterproof, nonclogging, fast-drying black drawing ink.
• Keep points screwed in securely to prevent ink from leaking.
• After each use, replace the pen cap firmly to prevent the ink
from drying.
• When pens are not in use, store them horizontally.

Since digital tools have reduced the need for manual drafting, a
variety of less expensive, low-maintenance technical pens have been
developed. Equipped with tubular tips and waterproof, pigmentbased ink, these pens are suitable for writing, freehand drawing, as
well as drafting with straightedges. They are available in point sizes
that range from 0.03 mm to 1.0 mm. Some are refillable and have
replaceable nibs.

4 / A r c hit ec t ur al Gr aph i c s

Draw i n g P e n s

Fountain Pens

Fountain pens typically consist of a reservoir—either a disposable
cartridge or an internal piston—containing a water-based ink
that is fed to a metal nib by capillary action. While not suitable for
drafting, fountain pens are ideal for writing and freehand sketching
because they offer ease in drawing fluid, incisive, often expressive
lines with little or no pressure.

Fountain pen nibs come in extra-fine, fine, medium, and broad sizes;
flat tipped nibs are also available for italic and oblique strokes.
Some nibs are flexible enough that they respond to individual
stroke direction and pressure.

Other Drawing Pens

Gel pens use a thick, opaque ink consisting of pigment suspended
in a water-based gel while rollerball pens use a water-based liquid
ink. Both offer similar qualities to fountain pens—they are
capable of a consistent ink flow and laying down lines with less
pressure than that required by regular ballpoint pens.

Digital Stylus

The digital equivalent of the pen and pencil is the stylus. Used with
a digitizing tablet and appropriate software, it replaces the mouse
and enables the user to draw in a freehand manner. Some models
and software are able to detect and respond to the amount of
hand pressure to mimic more realistically the effects of traditional
media.

Draw i ng Tool s and M ateri als / 5

D r aw in g G u i d e s

T-Squares

T-squares are straightedges that have a short
crosspiece at one end. This head slides along the
edge of a drawing board as a guide in establishing
and drawing straight parallel lines. T-squares are
relatively low in cost and portable but require a
straight and true edge against which their heads
can slide.

• T-squares are available in 18", 24", 30", 36",
42", and 48" lengths. 42" or 48" lengths are
recommended.

• This end of a T-square is subject to wobbling.

• Use this length of the straightedge.

• A metal angle secured to the drawing board
can provide a true edge.

• T-squares with clear, acrylic straightedges
should not be used for cutting. Metal
T-squares are available for this purpose.

• Rollers enable the parallel rule to move freely
across a drawing surface.
• Transparent, acrylic edges are recommended
for better visibility while drawing lines. Some
models are available with metal cutting edges.

Parallel Rules

Parallel rules are equipped with a system of cables
and pulleys that allows their straightedges to
move across a drawing board only in a parallel
manner. Parallel rules are more expensive and less
portable than T-squares but enable one to draft
with greater speed and accuracy.

6 / A r c hit ec t ur al Gr aph i c s

• Parallel rules are available in 30", 36", 42",
48", 54", and 60" lengths. The 42" or 48"
length is recommended.

Draw i n g G ui de s

Triangles

Triangles are drafting aids used to guide the drawing of
vertical lines and lines at specified angles. They have a
right angle and either two 45° angles or one 30° and
one 60° angle.
• 4" to 24" lengths are available.
• 8" to 10" lengths are recommended.
• Small triangles are useful for crosshatching small
areas and as a guide in handlettering. See page 210.
• Larger triangles are useful in constructing
perspectives.

• The 45°–45° and 30°–60° triangles can be used in
combination to produce angular increments of 15°.
See page 26.
• Triangles are made of clear, scratch-resistant, nonyellowing acrylic to allow a transparent, undistorted
view through to the work below. Fluorescent orange
acrylic triangles are also available for greater visibility
on the drafting surface.
• Machined edges should be polished for precision and
to facilitate drawing. Some triangles have raised
edges for inking with technical pens.
• Inner edges may be beveled to serve as finger lifts.
• Keep triangles clean by washing with a mild soap
and water.
• Triangles should not be used as a straightedge for
cutting materials.

Adjustable Triangles

Adjustable triangles have a movable leg that is held
in place with a thumbscrew and a scale for measuring
angles. These instruments are useful for drawing such
inclined lines as the slope of a stair or the pitch of a
roof.

Draw i ng Tool s and M ateri als / 7

D r aw in g G u i d e s

Compasses

The compass is essential for drawing large circles
as well as circles of indeterminate radii.

• It is difficult to apply pressure when using a
compass. Using too hard a grade of lead can
therefore result in too light of a line. A softer
grade of lead, sharpened to a chisel point, will
usually produce the sharpest line without undue
pressure. A chisel point dulls easily, however,
and must be sharpened often.

• An attachment allows technical pens to be used
with a compass.
• Even larger circles can be drawn by appending an
extension arm or using a beam compass.

French Curves

• A variety of French curves are manufactured to
guide the drawing of irregular curves.
• Adjustable curves are shaped by hand and held
in position to draw a fair curve through a series
of points.
Protractors

• Protractors are semicircular instruments for
measuring and plotting angles.

8 / A r c hit ec t ur al Gr aph i c s

Draw i n g G ui de s

Templates

Templates have cutouts to guide the
drawing of predetermined shapes.
• Circle templates provide a graduated
series of circles commonly based on
fractions and multiples of an inch.
Metric sizes are also available.
• The actual size of a cutout differs
from the drawn size due to the
thickness of the lead shaft or pen tip.
• Some templates have dimples to
raise them off of the drawing surface
while inking.

• Templates are available for drawing
other geometric shapes, such as
ellipses and polygons, as well as
symbols for plumbing fixtures and
furnishings at various scales.

Draw i ng Tool s and M ateri als / 9

D r aw in g G u i d e s

Digital Drawing

Analogous to traditional hand-drafting tools are the software
capabilities of a 2D vector-based drawing program, which define
lines—the quintessential element of architectural drawing—
as mathematical vectors.
• A straight line segment can be created by clicking two endpoints.
• The weight of the stroke can be selected from a menu or by
specifying its width in absolute terms (millimeters, fractions of an
inch, or number of points, where 1 point = 1/72").
Digital Guides

Drawing programs typically have commands to constrain the
movement of points and lines to a precise horizontal, vertical,
or diagonal direction. Grids and guidelines, along with snap-to
commands, further aid the precise drawing of lines and shapes.
• Parallel lines can be drawn by moving a copy of an existing line a
specified dimension and direction.
• Perpendicular lines can be drawn by rotating an existing line 90°.
• Smart guides can be set to draw lines at 30°, 45°, 60°, or any
specified angle.
• Sloping or inclined lines can be drawn by rotating an existing line
the desired number of degrees.
• Guides can also be set to align or distribute the centers, lefthand
or righthand edges, or tops or bottoms of line segments.
• Aligning centers

ges

• Aligning lefthand edges
1 0 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

bo

ftha

g le
gnin

li

•A

nd
nd a

ed
ttom

Digital Templates

2D drawing and computer-aided drafting (CAD) programs include
digital templates of geometric shapes, furnishings, fixtures, as
well as user-defined elements. Whether a template is physical or
digital, its purpose remains the same—to save time when drawing
repetitive elements.

Draw i n g Aid s

Erasers

One of the advantages of drawing with a pencil is the
ability to easily erase pencil marks. Always use the
softest eraser compatible with the medium and the
drawing surface. Avoid using abrasive ink erasers.
• Vinyl or PVC plastic erasers are nonabrasive and will
not smear or mar the drawing surface.
• Some erasers are saturated with erasing fluid to
erase ink lines from paper and drafting films.
• Liquid erasing fluid removes pencil and ink markings
from drafting film.

Erasing Shields

• Electric erasers are very convenient for erasing
large areas and ink lines. Compact, battery-operated
models are especially handy.

Erasing shields have cutouts of various
shapes and sizes to confine the area of a
drawing to be erased. These thin, stainlesssteel shields are especially effective in
protecting the drawing surface while using
an electric eraser. Ones that have squarecut holes allow the erasure of precise areas
of a drawing.

Other Aids

• Drafting brushes help keep the drawing surface
clean of erasure fragments and other particles.
• Soft, granular drafting powder is available that
provides a temporary protective coating over
drawings during drafting, picks up pencil lead dust,
and keeps the drawing surface clean. If used too
heavily, the powder can cause lines to skip, so use
sparingly, if at all.
• Pounce powder may be used to prepare drawing
surfaces for inking.

Draw i ng Tool s and M ateri als / 1 1

D r aw in g S cal e s

In drawing, “scale” refers to a proportion determining
the relation of a representation to the full size of that
which is represented. The term also applies to any of
various instruments having one or more sets of precisely
graduated and numbered spaces for measuring, reading,
or transferring dimensions and distances in a drawing.

Architect’s Scales

An architect’s scale has graduations along its edges
so that scale drawings can be measured directly in feet
and inches.
• Triangular scales have 6 sides with 11 scales, a fullsize scale in 1/16" increment, as well as the following
architectural scales: 3/32", 3/16", 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/8",
3/4", 1", 1 1/2", and 3" = 1'-0".
• Flat-beveled scales have either 2 sides with 4 scales
or 4 sides with 8 scales.

• 1/8" = 1'-0"

1 2 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

• Both 12" and 6" lengths are available.
• Scales should have precisely calibrated
graduations and engraved, wear-resistant markings.
• Scales should never be used as a
straightedge for drawing lines.

• 1/4" = 1'-0"

• To read an architect’s scale, use the part of scale
graduated in whole feet and the division of a foot for
increments smaller than a foot.

• 1/2" = 1'-0"

• The larger the scale of a drawing, the more information
it can and should contain.

Draw i n g S c a l e s

Engineer’s Scales

• 1" = 10'
• 1" = 100'
• 1" = 1000'

An engineer’s scale has one or more sets of
graduated and numbered spaces, each set being
divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60 parts to
the inch.

Metric Scales

Metric scales consist of one or more sets of
graduated and numbered spaces, each set
establishing a proportion of one millimeter to
a specified number of millimeters.
• Common metric scales include the following:
1:5, 1:50, 1:500, 1:10, 1:100, 1:1000,
1:20, and 1:200.

Digital Scale

In traditional drawing, we think in real-world
units and use scale to reduce the drawing to a
manageable size. In digital drawing, we actually
input information in real-world units, but we
should be careful to distinguish between the size
of the image viewed on a monitor, which can be
reduced and enlarged independent of its realworld size, and the scale of the output from a
printer or plotter.

Draw i ng Tool s and M ateri als / 1 3

D r aw in g S u r faces

The transparency of tracing papers and films
makes them effective for overlay work, allowing
us to copy or work on a drawing while seeing
through to an underlying drawing.
Tracing Papers

Tracing papers are characterized by
transparency, whiteness, and tooth or surface
grain. Fine-tooth papers are generally better for
inking, whereas medium-tooth papers are more
suitable for pencil work.
Sketch-Grade Tracing Paper

Inexpensive, lightweight tissue is available in
white, cream, and yellow or buff colors in rolls
12", 18", 24", 30", and 36" wide. Lightweight
trace is used for freehand sketching, overlays,
and studies. Use only soft leads or markers; hard
leads can tear the thin paper easily.
Vellum

Vellum is available in rolls, pads, and individual
sheets in 16, 20, and 24 lb. weights. While
medium-weight 16 lb. vellum is used for general
layouts and preliminary drawings, 20 lb. vellum
with 100% rag content is a more stable and
erasable paper used for finished drawings. Vellum
is available with nonreproducible blue square
grids, subdivided into 4 x 4, 5 x 5, 8 x 8, or 10 x
10 parts to the inch.
Drafting Film

Drafting film is a clear polyester film that
is durable, dimensionally stable, and translucent
enough for clear reproductions and overlay work.
The film is 3 to 4 mil thick and available in rolls
or cut sheets. One or both sides may have a
nonglare, matte finish suitable for pencil or ink.
Only compatible leads, inks, and erasers should
be used. Ink lines are removable with erasing fluid
or a vinyl eraser saturated with erasing fluid.

1 4 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

• Drafting tape or dots are
required to fix a sheet of
vellum or film to the drawing
board. Do not use normal
masking tape, which can
tear the paper surface upon
removal.

Drawin g Surfa c e s

Layer 1

Layer 1 + 2

Digital Layers

CAD and 3D-modeling programs have the
ability to organize sets of information
in different layers. While these levels or
categories can be thought of and used as
the digital equivalent of tracing paper, they
offer more possibilities for manipulating and
editing the information they contain than
do the physical layers of tracing paper. And
once entered and stored, digital information
is easier to copy, transfer, and share than
traditional drawings.

Layer 1 + 2 + 3

Layer 1 + 2 + 3 + 4

Layer 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
Draw i ng Tool s and M ateri als / 1 5

D r aw in g S u r faces

Illustration Boards

Illustration boards have a paper facing laminated to a
cardboard backing. Illustration boards are available in single
(1/16" ) and double (3/32" ) thicknesses. 100% rag paper
facings are recommended for final presentations.
Coldpress boards have a degree of texture for pencil work;
hotpress boards have relatively smooth surfaces more
suitable for inking.
Some brands of illustration boards have white facing papers
bonded to a middle core of white stock. Cut edges are
therefore consistently white in color, making them useful for
constructing architectural models.

1 6 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

2
Architectural Drafting
Drafting—drawing with the aid of straightedges, triangles, templates,
compasses, and scales—has been the traditional means of creating
architectural graphics and representation, and it remains relevant in an
increasingly digital world. Drawing a line with a pen or pencil incorporates
a kinesthetic sense of direction and length, and is a tactile act that feeds
back into the mind in a way that reinforces the structure of the resulting
graphic image. This chapter describes techniques and pointers for
drafting lines, constructing geometric figures and shapes, and performing
such operations as subdividing a given length into a number of equal
parts. Understanding these procedures will result in more efficient and
systematic representation of architectural and engineering structures;
many are often useful in freehand sketching as well. Interspersed are
digital equivalents of hand-drafting techniques to illustrate the principles
that underlie all drawing, whether done by hand or on the computer.

D raw in g L ine s

The quintessential element of architectural drawing is the
line, the mark a pen or pencil leaves as it moves across a
receptive surface. Controlling the pen or pencil is the key
to producing good line quality and proper line weights.
• Draw with a relaxed hand; do not squeeze the pencil or
pen too hard.
• Hold the pen or pencil a couple of inches back from the
nib or point; do not hold the instrument too close to the
nib or point.
• Control the movement of your pen or pencil with your
arm and hand, not just with your fingers.
• Pull the pen or pencil as you draw; do not push the shaft
of the instrument as you would a cue stick.
• Look ahead to where the line is headed.

Ending point: 17, 7, 0

Drawing with a pen or pencil is not only a visual experience,
it is also a tactile one in which you should feel the surface
of the paper, film, or illustration board as you draw.
Further, it is a kinesthetic act wherein the movements of
the hand and eye correspond to the line produced.
Digital Drawing

Starting point: 3, –2, 0

1 8 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

There is a similar, but less direct, correspondence when
drawing with a mouse or a stylus on a digitizing tablet, but
no such parallel spatial action occurs when entering the
coordinates of a line on a keyboard.

Line Types

All lines serve a purpose in drawing. It is essential that,
as you draw, you understand what each line represents,
whether it be an edge of a plane, a change in material, or
simply a construction guideline.
The following types of lines, whether drawn by hand or
on a computer, are typically used to make architectural
graphics easier to read and interpret:
• Solid lines delineate the form of objects, such as the
edge of a plane or the intersection of two planes. The
relative weight of a solid line varies according to its
role in conveying depth.
• Dashed lines, consisting of short, closely spaced
strokes, indicate elements hidden or removed from
our view.
• Centerlines, consisting of thin, relatively long
segments separated by single dashes or dots,
represent the axis of a symmetrical object or
composition.
• Grid lines are a rectangular or radial system of light
solid lines or centerlines for locating and regulating
the elements of a plan.
• Property lines, consisting of relatively long segments
separated by two dashes or dots, indicate the legally
defined and recorded boundaries of a parcel of land.
• Break lines, consisting of relatively long segments
joined by short zigzag strokes, are used to cut off a
portion of a drawing.
• Utility lines consist of relatively long segments
separated by a letter indicating the type of utility.

Arch i t e ct ural D r afting / 1 9

L i n e We i g ht s

In theory, all lines should be uniformly dense for ease of readability and reproduction.
Line weight is therefore primarily a matter of width or thickness. While inked lines
are uniformly black and vary only in width, pencil lines can vary in both width and
tonal value, depending on the hardness of the lead used, the tooth and density of the
surface, and the speed and pressure with which you draw. Strive to make all pencil
lines uniformly dense and vary their width to achieve differing line weights.
Heavy

• Heavy solid lines are used to delineate the profiles of plan and section cuts
(see pages 54 and 71) as well as spatial edges (see page 99).
• Use H, F, HB, or B leads; pressing too hard to draw a bold line indicates that you
are using too hard of a lead.
• Use a lead holder or draw a series of closely spaced lines with a 0.3 mm or
0.5 mm mechanical pencil; avoid using a 0.7 mm or 0.9 mm pencil for drawing
heavy line weights.
Medium

• Medium-weight solid lines indicate the edges and intersections of planes.
• Use H, F, or HB leads.
Light

• Lightweight solid lines suggest a change in material, color, or texture,
without a change in the form of an object.
• Use 2H, H, or F leads.
Very Light

• Very light solid lines are used to lay out drawings, establish organizing grids,
and indicate surface textures.
• Use 4H, 2H, H, or F leads.
• The visible range and contrast of line weights should be in proportion to the size
and scale of a drawing.
Digital Line Weights

A distinct advantage to drawing or drafting by hand is that the results are
immediately discernible to the eye. When using drawing or CAD software, one may
select a line weight from a menu or by specifying a stroke width in absolute units
(millimeters, fractions of an inch, or number of points, where 1 point = 1/72"). In
either case, what one views on a monitor may not match the output from a printer
or plotter. One should therefore always run a test print or plot to ascertain whether
or not the resulting range and contrasts in the line weights of a drawing are
appropriate. Note, however, that if changes in line weight are necessary, it is often
much easier to make them in a digital drawing than in a hand drawing.

2 0 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

L i n e Qu alit y

Line quality refers to the crispness, clarity, and
consistency of a drawn line.
• The density and weight of a line should be as
uniform as possible along its entire length.
• Drafted lines should have a taut quality, as if
stretched tightly between two points.
• Avoid drawing a line as a series of short
overlapping strokes.
• All lines should meet crisply at corners.

• When lines stop short of a corner, the resulting
angle will appear to be soft or rounded.
• Avoid excessive overlapping that appears out
of proportion to the size of a drawing.

• Dashes should be relatively uniform in length and
be closely spaced for better continuity.
• When dashed lines meet at a corner, a dash
should continue across the angle.
• A space in the corner position will soften the angle.
Digital Line Quality

What one sees on a computer monitor does not
necessarily indicate what one will get from a printer
or plotter. Judgment of line quality in a digital drawing
must be deferred until one sees the actual output from
a printer or plotter.
• The lines produced by vector drawing programs are
based on mathematical formulas and usually print
or plot better than those of raster images.

Arch i t e ct ural D r afting / 2 1

D ra ft in g Te ch niques

General Principles

• The point of the lead in a lead holder should have a taper about
3/8" long; if the taper is too short or too rounded, the point will
dull quickly.
• There are a variety of mechanical sharpeners available. If you use
a sandpaper pad to sharpen leads, slant the lead at a low angle to
achieve the correct taper.
• 0.3 mm or 0.5 mm leads for mechanical pencils do not require
sharpening.
• Position your body to draw over the upper straightedge of a
T-square, parallel rule, or triangle, never the lower edge.
• Hold the pencil at a 45° to 60° angle; hold technical pens at a
slightly steeper angle.
• Pull the pen or pencil along the straightedge in a plane
perpendicular to the drawing surface, leaving a very slight gap
between the straightedge and the nib of the pen or the point of
the pencil. Do not push the pen or pencil as if it were a cue stick.
• Do not draw into the corner where the straightedge meets the
drawing surface. Doing so dirties the equipment and causes
blotting of ink lines.
• Draw with a steady pace—not too fast, not too slowly—and
with even pressure. This will help prevent a line from feathering or
fading out along its length.
• To help a pencil point wear evenly and keep it fairly sharp, rotate
the shaft of the lead holder or mechanical pencil between your
thumb and forefinger slowly as you draw the entire length of a line.
• A line should start and end in a positive manner. Applying slight
additional pressure at the beginning and ending of a stroke will
help accomplish this.
• Strive for single-stroke lines. Achieving the desired line weight,
however, may require drawing a series of closely spaced lines.
• Try to keep drawings clean by washing hands and equipment often,
and by lifting and moving tools rather than dragging or sliding
them across the drawing surface.
• Protect the drawing surface by keeping areas of it covered with
lightweight tracing paper and exposing only the area in which you
are working. The transparency of the tracing paper helps maintain
a visual connection to the context of the drawing.

2 2 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

D r aftin g T e c h n i que s

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

• When drawing vertical lines perpendicular to the edge
of a T-square or parallel rule, use a drafting triangle
and turn your body so that you can draw them in a
manner similar to the way you draw horizontal lines.
• Avoid simply drawing the vertical lines by sitting still
and sliding the pen or pencil up or down the edge of the
triangle.

• Drawing a series of parallel lines using two triangles
is useful when the series is at some angle other than
the standard 30°, 45°, 60°, or 90° angle of drafting
triangles.
• Position the hypotenuse of one triangle against the
hypotenuse of the other and align one side of the
upper triangle with the given line.
• Hold the bottom triangle firmly while you slide the
other triangle to the desired positions.

• To draw a perpendicular to a given line, first
position the hypotenuse of one triangle against the
hypotenuse of the other.
• Align one side of the upper triangle with the given line.
• Hold the bottom triangle firmly while you slide the
upper triangle until the perpendicular side is in the
proper position.

Arch i t e ct ural D r afting / 2 3

D ra ft in g Te ch niques

Subdivisions

A

B

In principle, it is always advisable to work from the
larger part to the smaller. The successive repetition
of short lengths or measurements can often result
in an accumulation of minute errors. It is therefore
advantageous to be able to subdivide an overall length
into a number of equal parts. Being able to subdivide any
given length in this manner is useful for constructing the
risers and runs of a stairway, as well as for establishing
the coursing of such construction as a tiled floor or
masonry wall.
• To subdivide a line segment AB into a number of equal
parts, draw a line at a convenient angle between 10°
and 45° through the starting point. Using an angle
that is too acute would make it difficult to ascertain
the exact point of intersection.

A

B

C

• Along this line, use an appropriate scale to mark off
the desired number of equal divisions.
A

B
C

• Connect the end points B and C.
• Draw lines parallel to BC to transfer the scaled
divisions to line AB.
A

2 4 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

B

D r aftin g T e c h n i que s

A distinct advantage of digital drawing programs is they allow us
to try out graphic ideas and easily undo them if unworkable. We
can lay out and develop work on screen and either print it out or
save the file for future editing. Questions of scale and placement
can be deferred since these aspects can be adjusted as required
during the creation of the final graphic image. In hand drafting,
the result of the drawing process is seen immediately but
adjustments to scale and placement are difficult to make.
Digital Multiplication

The ability to create, move, and place copies of a line or shape is
easily accomplished in digital drawing programs.
• We can copy and move any line or shape a specified distance
in a given direction, repeating this process as many times as
necessary to achieve the desired number of equally spaced
copies.
A

B

Digital Subdivision

We can subdivide any line segment in a manner similar to the
process we use in hand drafting. We can also distribute lines and
shapes evenly between the two endpoints of the line segment.
Whether subdividing by hand drafting or in a digital drawing
program, the process of working from the general to the specific,
from the larger whole to the smaller parts, remains the same.

A

B

• Given line segment AB, draw a line segment at any angle
through point A and copy the line segment as many times as
necessary to equal the desired number of subdivisions.
• Move the last line segment to point B.

• Select all of the line segments and distribute them evenly to
create the desired number of equal divisions.
A

B

Arch i t e ct ural D r afting / 2 5

D ra ft in g Te ch niques

75°

60°

45°
30°

15°

Angles and Shapes

We use the standard drafting triangles to construct
30°, 45°, 60°, and 90° angles. Using both 45°–45°
and 30°–60° triangles in combination, we can also
easily construct 15° and 75° angles. For other
angles, use a protractor or an adjustable triangle.
The diagrams to the left illustrate how to construct
three common geometric shapes­—an equilateral
triangle, a square, and a pentagon.

2 6 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

D r aftin g T e c h n i que s

Digital Shapes

2D vector-based drawing programs incorporate a number of
graphic primitives, software routines for drawing such elements
as points, straight lines, curves, and shapes, all based on
mathematical formulae and from which more complex graphic
elements can be created.
Digital shapes have two attributes: stroke and fill.
• The stroke is the path that defines the boundary of a shape.
• The fill is the area within the boundary of the shape, which can
be left as a void or be given a color, pattern, or gradient.
Digital Transformations

Once created, a digital shape can be transformed by scaling,
rotating, reflecting, or shearing. Any vector-based shape is
easy to modify because the mathematical description of its
underlying geometry is embedded in the software routine.
• Vector images can be reduced or enlarged horizontally,
vertically, or in both directions without degrading the
quality of the image. Because vector images are resolution
independent, they can be output to the highest quality at any
scale.
• Vector images can be rotated about a designated point to
any specified angle.

• Vector images can be reflected or mirrored about any
specified axis.
• Vector images can be sheared or skewed along a horizontal or
vertical axis, or at a specified angle relative to a horizontal or
vertical axis.
Any of these transformations can be repeated a number of times
until the desired image is achieved.

Arch i t e ct ural D r afting / 2 7

D ra ft in g Te ch niques

Curved Lines

• To avoid drawing a mismatched tangent to a circle
or curved line segment, draw the curvilinear element
first.
• Then draw the tangent from the circle or arc.
• Care should be taken to match the pen or pencil line
weights of circles and arcs to the rest of the drawing.
• To draw an arc of a given radius tangent to two given
straight line segments, first draw lines parallel to the
given lines at a distance equal to the desired radius
of the arc.
• The intersection of these lines establishes the center
of the desired arc.
• To draw two circles that are tangent to each other,
first draw a line from the center of one to the desired
tangential point on its circumference.
• The center of the second circle must lie along the
extension of this line.
Bézier Curves

Bézier curves refers to a class of mathematically
derived curves developed by French engineer Pierre
Bézier for CAD/CAM operations.

Control point
Handle

Anchor point

Anchor point

Handle

Anchor point

Control point

2 8 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

• A simple Bézier curve has two anchor points, which
define the endpoints of the curve, and two control
points, which lie outside the curve and control the
curvature of the path.
• A number of simple Bézier curves can be joined to
form more complex curves.

• The colinear relationship between the two handles at
an anchor point ensures a smooth curvature wherever
the path changes curvature.

3
Architectural Drawing
Systems
The central task of architectural drawing is representing three-dimensional
forms, constructions, and spatial environments on a two-dimensional
surface. Three distinct types of drawing systems have evolved over time
to accomplish this mission: multiview, paraline, and perspective drawings.
This chapter describes these three major drawing systems, the principles
behind their construction, and their resulting pictorial characteristics. The
discussion does not include media that involve motion and animation, made
possible by computer technology. Nevertheless, these visual systems of
representation constitute a formal graphic language that is governed by a
consistent set of principles. Understanding these principles and related
conventions is the key to creating and reading architectural drawings.

Pr oje ction D rawing

All three major drawing systems result from the way
a three-dimensional subject is projected onto a twodimensional plane of projection, or more simply, onto
the picture plane.
• Projectors transfer points on the subject to the
picture plane. These projectors are also called
sight lines in perspective projection.
• The drawing surface or sheet of paper is the virtual
equivalent of the picture plane.
Three distinct projection systems result from the
relationship of the projectors to each other as well
as to the picture plane.
Orthographic Projection

• Projectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the picture plane.
• Axonometric projection is a special case of
orthographic projection.

Oblique Projection

• Projectors are parallel to each other and oblique to
the picture plane.

Perspective Projection

• Projectors or sightlines radiate from a central
point that represents a single eye of the observer.

Once the information for a three-dimensional
construction or environment has been entered into
a computer, 3D CAD and modeling software can
theoretically present the information in any of these
projection systems.

3 0 / A r c hit ec t u r al Gr ap h i c s

P ic t oria l S yst e m s

When we study how each projection system represents the same
subject, we can see how different pictorial effects result. We categorize
these pictorial systems into multiview drawings, paraline drawings, and
perspective drawings.
Projection Systems

Pictorial Systems

Orthographic Projection

Multiview Drawings

• Multiview drawings consist of plans, sections, and elevations.
• The principal face in each view is oriented parallel to the picture plane.
Paraline Drawings

• Isometrics: The three major axes make equal angles with the
picture plane.
Axonometric Projection

• Dimetrics: Two of the three major axes make equal angles with the
picture plane.
• Trimetrics: All three major axes make different angles with the
picture plane.

Oblique Projection

• Elevation obliques: A principal vertical face is oriented parallel to
the picture plane.
• Plan obliques: A principal horizontal face is oriented parallel to
the picture plane.

Perspective Projection

Perspective Drawings

• 1-point perspectives: One horizontal axis is perpendicular to the picture
plane while the other horizontal axis and the vertical axis are parallel with
the picture plane.

These pictorial views are
available in most 3D CAD
and modeling programs.
The terminology, however,
may differ from what is
presented here.

• 2-point perspectives: Both horizontal axes are oblique to the picture
plane and the vertical axis remains parallel with the picture plane.
• 3-point perspectives: Both horizontal axes as well as the vertical axis
are oblique to the picture plane.

Archi t e ct u ra l D rawing S ystems / 3 1

Mu ltivie w D r aw ings

Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection represents a threedimensional form or construction by projecting lines
perpendicular to the picture plane.
• Projectors are both parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the picture plane.
• Major faces or facets of the subject are typically
oriented parallel with the picture plane. Parallel
projectors therefore represent these major faces
in their true size, shape, and proportions. This
is the greatest advantage of using orthographic
projections—to be able to describe facets
of a form parallel to the picture plane